References

Adam SEI, Al-Yahya MA, Al-Farhan AH. Toxicity of Nerium oleander and Rhazya stricta in Najdi sheep: hematologic and clinicopathologic alterations. Am J Chin Med. 2002; 30:(02n03)255-262 https://doi.org/10.1142/S0192415X02000326

Northern Ireland disease surveillance, October to December 2010. Vet Rec. 2011; 168:(9)234-237 https://doi.org/10.1136/vr.d1114

Northern Ireland disease surveillance report, October to December 2015. Vet Rec. 2016; 178:(7)162-165 https://doi.org/10.1136/vr.i758

Ajto T, Anzai H, Morikawa T, Terui S. A case report of Japanese pieris poisoning in sheep. Japanese Journal of Veterinary Clinics. 2001; 24:(1)19-22 https://doi.org/10.4190/jjvc2001.24.19

Alden CL, Fosnaugh CJ, Smith JB, Mohan R. Japanese yew poisoning of large domestic animals in the Midwest. J Am Vet Med Assoc. 1977; 170:(3)314-316

Angus K. Plant poisoning in Britain and Ireland, 4th ed. In: Aitken ID (ed). Ames, Iowa: Blackwell Publishing; 2007

Disease surveillance in England and Wales. Vet Rec. 2016; 178:(2)37-40 https://doi.org/10.1136/vr.h6863

Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA). GB small ruminant quarterly report. Disease surveillance and emerging threats. Volume 23: Q4 – October – December 2020. https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/971843/pub-survrep-sr0420.pdf (accessed 25 October 2021)

Armién AG, Peixoto PV, Barbosa JD, Tokarnia CH. Experimental poisoning of sheep by Nerium oleander (Apocynaceae). Pesqui Vet Bras. 1994; 4:85-93

Armien AG, Peixoto PV, Barbosa JD, Tokarnia CH. Experimental poisoning by Rhododendron ledifolium (Ericaceae) in sheep. Pesqui Vet Bras. 1995; 15:(1)1-9

Aslani M, Taghavi-Razavi-Zadeh A, Movassaghi A Clinical and pathological study of experimentally-induced yew (Taxus baccata) poisoning in sheep. Iran J Vet Sci Technol. 2011; 3:(1)11-22

Bausch JD, Carson TL. Oak poisoning in cattle. Iowa State Univ Vet. 1981; 43:(3)

Bernays EA, Driver GC, Bilgener M. Herbivores and plant tannins. Adv Ecol Res. 1989; 19:263-302 https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2504(08)60160-9

Bischoff K, Smith MC, Stump S. Treatment of pieris ingestion in goats with intravenous lipid emulsion. J Med Toxicol. 2014; 10:(4)411-414 https://doi.org/10.1007/s13181-014-0426-z

Black D. Rhododendron poisoning in sheep. Vet Rec. 1991; 128:(15)363-364 https://doi.org/10.1136/vr.128.15.363

Bratberg B, Flesja K. Intoxication in the dog by the European Adder. Nord Vet Med. 1973; 25:185-195

Burrows GE, Tyrl RJ. Toxic Plants of North America, 2nd edition.Ames, Iowa: Wiley-Blackwell; 2013

Butler J, Khan S, Scarzella G. Fatal oleander toxicosis in two miniature horses. J Am Anim Hosp Assoc. 2016; 52:(6)398-402 https://doi.org/10.5326/JAAHA-MS-6433

Button C, Jerrett I, Alexander P, Mizon W. Blindness in kids associated with overdosage of closantel. Aust Vet J. 1987; 64:(7) https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-0813.1987.tb15193.x

Calderón L, Lomonte B, Gutiérrez J, Tarkowski A, Hanson LÅ. Biological and biochemical activities of Vipera berus (European viper) venom. Toxicon. 1993; 31:(6)743-753 https://doi.org/10.1016/0041-0101(93)90380-2

Casteel SW. Plants - Taxine alkaloids. In: Plumlee KH (ed). : Mosby; 2004

Casteel S, Wagstaff J. Rhododendron macrophyllum poisoning in a group of goats and sheep. Vet Hum Toxicol. 1989; 31:(2)176-177

Cope RB. The dangers of yew ingestion. Vet Med. 2005; 100:(9)646-650

Corrigall W, Moody R, Forbes J. Foxglove (Digitalis purpurea) poisoning in farmed red deer (Cervus elaphus). Vet Rec. 1978; 102:(6)119-122 https://doi.org/10.1136/vr.102.6.119

Crilly JP, Pozo J, Scott PR, Wilson DJ, Sargison ND, Truyers I. Retinopathy and optic neuropathy following closantel treatment of ewes. Vet Rec Case Rep. 2014; 2:(1) https://doi.org/10.1136/vetreccr-2014-000044

De Luckham H. Snake bite in England. Vet J. 1944; 100:68-69

Dixon P, McPherson E, Rowland A, Maclennan W. Acorn poisoning in cattle. Vet Rec. 1979; 104:(13)284-285 https://doi.org/10.1136/vr.104.13.284

Dollahite JW, Housholder GT, Camp BJ. Oak poisoning in livestock. Texas A&M University Bulletin. 1966; 1049

Eo KY, Kwon OD. Rhododendron poisoning in sheep and goats. J Vet Clin. 2009; 26:(4)344-347

Eroksuz Y, Dabak M, Eroksuz H, Baydar E, Turkoglu I, Yilmaz I. Acute oak (Quercus infectoria) toxicosis in lambs. Rev Med Vet. 2013; 164:(6)302-306

Forsyth AA. British Poisonous Plants. MAFF Bulletin. 1979; 161:68-69

Galey FD. Cardiac glycosides. In: Plumlee KH (ed). : Mosby; 2004

Gill PA, Cook RW, Boulton JG, Kelly WR, Vanselow B, Reddacliff LA. Optic neuropathy and retinopathy in closantel toxicosis of sheep and goats. Aust Vet J. 1999; 77:(4)259-261 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-0813.1999.tb11718.x

Gillis WT, Ball W, Ball W. Pieris poisoning in zoo animals. Mich St Uni Vet. 1961; 22:24-26

Gwaltney-Brant SM, Rumbeiha WK. Newer antidotal therapies. Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract. 2002; 32:(2)323-339 https://doi.org/10.1016/S0195-5616(01)00008-0

Hannon FP, Ellis KA, Guevar J, Marchesi F, Geraghty T, Leach JDG. Closantel toxicity in a pregnant ewe at mid gestation: the pathological evaluation of the ewe and lamb nine months later. Vet Rec Case Rep. 2014; 2:(1) https://doi.org/10.1136/vetreccr-2014-000113

Hare WR. Yew (Taxus spp) poisoning in domestic animals. In: Garland T, Barr AC (eds). : CAB International; 1998

Holliman A. Acorn poisoning in ruminants. Vet Rec. 1985; 116:(20) https://doi.org/10.1136/vr.116.20.546

Lanfranchi L, Crevani M, Petrolini VM Taxus baccata (yew) intoxication treated with sodium bicarbonate and lipid emulsion. Clin Toxicol. 2018; 56:(6) https://doi.org/10.1080/15563650.2018.1457818

Lervik JB, Lilliehöök I, Frendin JHM. Clinical and biochemical changes in 53 Swedish dogs bitten by the European adder - Vipera berus. Acta Vet Scand. 2010; 52:(1) https://doi.org/10.1186/1751-0147-52-26

Lovatt F, Stevenson H, Davies I. Sudden death in sheep. In Pract. 2014; 36:(8)409-417 https://doi.org/10.1136/inp.g5351

Kumar K, Mishra C, Anjanamurthy R, Kannan NB, Ramasamy K. Reversible blindness in a patient with closantel toxicity. Indian J Ophthalmol. 2019; 67:(10)1768-1771 https://doi.org/10.4103/ijo.IJO_2070_18

Maclean A. Suspected foxglove poisoning in sheep. Vet Rec. 1966; 79:(25)817-818 https://doi.org/10.1136/vr.79.25.817

Marsboom R. Acute toxicity studies in sheep and cattle single dosing: oral/intramuscular.Geneva: WHO;

Marsboom R, Herin V, Vandenstane R, Van Belle H. Oral and intramuscular toxicity study in Suffolk sheep (10 doses per animal every fourth week).Geneva: WHO;

Marsh CD, Clawson AB, Marsh H. Oak-leaf poisoning of domestic animals. US Dept Agri Bull. 1919; (767)

Metcalfe DJ. Hedera helix L. J Ecol. 2005; 93:(3)632-648 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2745.2005.01021.x

Miller RW. A brief survey of Taxus alkaloids and other taxane derivatives. J Nat Prod. 1980; 43:(4)425-437 https://doi.org/10.1021/np50010a001

Mole S, Butler LG, Iason G. Defense against dietary tannin in herbivores: A survey for proline rich salivary proteins in mammals. Biochem Syst Ecol. 1990; 18:(4)287-293 https://doi.org/10.1016/0305-1978(90)90073-O

Mullins J. Acorn poisoning in sheep. N Z Vet J. 1955; 3:(4) https://doi.org/10.1080/00480169.1955.33208

Ogden L. Taxus (yews)—a highly toxic plant. Vet Hum Toxicol. 1988; 30:(6)563-564

Palviainen M, Raekallio M, Vainionpää M, Lahtinen H, Vainio O. Evaluation of renal impairment in dogs after envenomation by the common European adder (Vipera berus berus). Vet J. 2013; 198:(3)723-724 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tvjl.2013.09.008

Pelander L, Ljungvall I, Häggström J. Myocardial cell damage in 24 dogs bitten by the common European viper (Vipera berus). Vet Rec. 2010; 166:(22)687-690 https://doi.org/10.1136/vr.b4817

Pérez V, Doce RR, García-Pariente C, Hervás G, Carmen Ferreras M, Mantecón ÁR, Frutos P Oak leaf (Quercus pyrenaica) poisoning in cattle. Res Vet Sci. 2011; 91:(2)269-277 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rvsc.2010.12.015

Plumlee KH, VanAlstine WG, Sullivan JM. Japanese pieris toxicosis of goats. J Vet Diagn Invest. 1992; 4:(3)363-4 https://doi.org/10.1177/104063879200400330

Plumlee KH, Johnson B, Galey FD. Comparison of disease in calves dosed orally with oak or commercial tannic acid. J Vet Diagn Invest. 1998; 10:(3)263-267 https://doi.org/10.1177/104063879801000306

Power S, O'Donnell P, Quirk E. Pieris poisoning in sheep. Vet Rec. 1991; 128:(25)599-600 https://doi.org/10.1136/vr.128.25.599

Prestt I. An ecological study of the viper Vipera berus in southern Britain. J Zool. 1971; 164:(3)373-418 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7998.1971.tb01324.x

Puschner B, Holstege DM, Lamberski N. Grayanotoxin poisoning in three goats. J Am Vet Med Assoc. 2001; 218:(4)573-5

Rae CA, Binnington BD. Yew poisoning in sheep. Can Vet J. 1995; 36:(7)

Rao N, Parmar JJ, Sadhu DB, Shah AI, Patel DM. Closantel intoxication in a sheep: case study. Int J Curr Microbiol Appl Sci. 2018; 7:(10)1445-1447 https://doi.org/10.20546/ijcmas.2018.710.160

Rivero R, Matto C, Soares MP, Adrien ML. Accidental and experimental Closantel intoxication in Uruguayan sheep. Pesqui Vet Bras. 2015; 35:(7)599-604 https://doi.org/10.1590/S0100-736X2015000700001

Robbins CT, Hanley TA, Hagerman AE Role of tannins in defending plants against ruminants: reduction in protein availability. Ecology. 1987; 68:(1)98-107 https://doi.org/10.2307/1938809

SAC C VS disease surveillance report: Unusual cases of illthrift associated with PGE in Scottish cattle. Vet Rec. 2009; 164:(19)579-582 https://doi.org/10.1136/vr.164.19.579

SAC C VS disease surveillance report: Severe winter weather affects the health of Scottish livestock. Vet Rec. 2011a; 168:(8)208-211 https://doi.org/10.1136/vr.d1148

SAC C VS disease surveillance report: Early cases of Streptococcus dysgalactiae arthritis seen in lambs. Vet Rec. 2011b; 168:(17)449-452 https://doi.org/10.1136/vr.d2601

SAC C VS disease surveillance report: Suspected ergotism causing lameness and distal limb necrosis in cattle. Vet Rec. 2012; 170:(8)198-201 https://doi.org/10.1136/vr.e1221

SAC C VS disease surveillance report: Skin lesions in a heifer with malignant catarrhal fever. Vet Rec. 2015a; 177:(2)40-43 https://doi.org/10.1136/vr.h3173

SAC C VS disease surveillance report: Delayed swayback diagnosed in lambs with hindlimb paresis. Vet Rec. 2015b; 176:(5)118-121 https://doi.org/10.1136/vr.h110

SAC C VS disease surveillance report: Adverse weather triggers cases of rhododendron poisoning in sheep. Vet Rec. 2018; 182:(16)453-456 https://doi.org/10.1136/vr.k1731

Samanta S, Giri S, Parua S, Nandi DK, Pati BR, Mondal KC. Impact of tannic acid on the gastrointestinal microflora. Microb Ecol Health Dis. 2004; 16:(1)32-34

Samel M, Vija H, Rönnholm G, Siigur J, Kalkkinen N, Siigur E. Isolation and characterization of an apoptotic and platelet aggregation inhibiting l-amino acid oxidase from Vipera berus berus (common viper) venom. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - Proteins and Proteomics. 2006; 1764:(4)707-714 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbapap.2006.01.021

Scott WA. Apparent low toxicity of yew in muntjac deer and Soay sheep. Vet Rec. 2010; 166:(8) https://doi.org/10.1136/vr.c971

Siigur E, Siigur J, Nômmeots M, Ilomets T. Fractionation and enzymatic activities of common viper (Vipera berus berus) venom. Toxicon. 1979; 17:(6)623-630 https://doi.org/10.1016/0041-0101(79)90237-X

Spier SJ, Smith BP, Seawright AA, Norman BB, Ostrowski SR, Oliver MN. Oak toxicosis in cattle in northern California: clinical and pathologic findings. J Am Vet Med Assoc. 1987; 191:(8)958-964

Sula MJM, Morgan S, Bailey KL, Schumpert M, Njaa BL. Characterization of cardiac lesions in calves after ingestion of Japanese yew (Taxus cuspidata). J Vet Diagn Invest. 2013; 25:(4)522-526 https://doi.org/10.1177/1040638713489981

Tabatabaei SA, Soleimani M, Mansouri MR Closantel; a veterinary drug with potential severe morbidity in humans. BMC Ophthalmol. 2016; 16:(1) https://doi.org/10.1186/s12886-016-0387-x

Van Cauteren H, Vandenberghe J, Hérin V, Vanparys P, Marsboora R. Toxicological properties of closantel. Drug Chem Toxicol. 1985; 8:(3)101-123 https://doi.org/10.3109/01480548508999164

van Leengoed LA, van Amerongen JJ. Rododendron intoxicatie: klinische verschijnselen, behandeling en verloop binnen een koppel schapen. [Rhododendron poisoning: clinical aspects, treatment and course in a herd of sheep]. Tijdschr Diergeneeskd. 1983; 108:(1)41-42

A case of closantel toxicity in crossbred lambs. Flock & Herd, posted September 2016. http://www.flockandherd.net.au/sheep/reader/closantel-toxicity.html (accessed 27 October 2021)

Wilson CR, Hooser SB. Toxicity of yew (Taxus spp.) alkaloids. In: Gupta RC (ed). Oxford: Academic Press; 2012

Wilson CR, Sauer JM, Hooser SB. Taxines: a review of the mechanism and toxicity of yew (Taxus spp.) alkaloids. Toxicon. 2001; 39:(2-3)175-185 https://doi.org/10.1016/S0041-0101(00)00146-X

Zhu J, Filippich LJ, Alsalami MT. Tannic acid intoxication in sheep and mice. Res Vet Sci. 1992; 53:(3)280-292 https://doi.org/10.1016/0034-5288(92)90128-O

Sheep

A brief overview of acute poisoning in sheep

02 November 2021
Clinical
16 mins read
02 November 2021
Volume 26 · Issue 6
Figure 4. Yew (Taxus spp.) contains cardiotoxins.
Figure 4. Yew (Taxus spp.) contains cardiotoxins.

Abstract

Acute poisoning in sheep can occur following ingestion of toxic plants, including plants that they may eat normally such as ivy (Hedera spp.) and plants they avoid unless other forage is unavailable. Poisoning with plants containing grayanotoxins (Pieris and Rhododendron spp.) is very common in sheep, particularly when the weather is poor and they are hungry. Oak (Quercus spp.) poisoning is also relatively common in sheep, particular in years with a heavy acorn crop. Numerous plants contain cardiac glycosides and are a potential risk to sheep. Sudden death is frequently the first signs of plant toxicosis in livestock. Bites from adders (Vipera berus berus) may also occur in sheep but are likely to be underreported as the actual biting event is not witnessed. Envenomation may result in swelling and haematological, renal, hepatic and cardiac effects. Overdosage of drugs with a narrow therapeutic index may also be a risk. One such example is closantel which can result in blindness. Management of acute poisoning in sheep is supportive including removal from exposure, and providing analgesia, rehydration and potentially a rumenotomy for plant exposure in valuable animals.

Acute poisoning occasionally occurs in sheep. Two common causes are overdosage of drugs with a narrow therapeutic index, such as closantel, and plant poisoning. Sheep are generally more conservative browsers and not as inquisitive as cattle and goats. Consequently, they generally only eat unfamiliar plants when they are hungry and other forage is unavailable (Angus, 2007). This typically occurs in extreme weather conditions, such as periods of heavy snowfall or drought. Adder bite is also a risk in sheep but is likely underreported.

This article discusses acute poisoning in sheep.

Grayanotoxins are found in Pieris spp. (Figure 1a) and Rhododendron spp. (Figure 1b, which includes azaleas). These plants contain several grayanotoxins in the nectar, flowers, leaves and stems but the main toxin is grayanotoxin I (also known as rhodotoxin, acetylandromedol or andromedotoxin). Grayanotoxins are partial agonists that act on cell membrane sodium channels causing positive inotropic effects resulting in severe weakness, hypotension, dyspnoea and neurological signs.

Register now to continue reading

Thank you for visiting UK-VET Companion Animal and reading some of our peer-reviewed content for veterinary professionals. To continue reading this article, please register today.

Register
Or continue by

Signing in with your registered email address

poisoning
toxicology
closantel overdose
plant poisoning
grayanotoxin poisoning
acorn poisoning